An Exploration of the Contemporary Work Ethic of IT Industry Employees in the United States
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33423/jabe.v26i3.7170Keywords:
business, economics, United States IT industry, information technology, work ethic, post-pandemic work environment, work-setting, organizational cultureAbstract
This study contributes to the growing body of research identifying work ethic as an integral part of organizational performance. IT work in the U.S. is an essential component of the contemporary work environment as the dependency on technological resources increases. Relying on IT workers as respondents, this study examined multiple aspects of work ethic including changes in its aggregate level over time, differences across work environments, relationships with demographics, and the influence of organizational culture. Results suggest that work ethic is relatively stable over time and across demographic categories. Important relationships between work ethic and organizational culture are discussed and the relevance to the IT profession are supported.
References
Alfano, V. (2022). Work ethics, stay-at-home measures and COVID-19 diffusion. The European Journal of Health Economics, 23(5), 893–901. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10198-021-01402-0
Amabile, T.M. (1988). A model of creativity and innovation in organizations. Research in Organizational Behavior, 10(1), 123–167.
Arshad, M. (2020). COVID-19: It’s time to be thankful to our ICT professionals. Information Technology & Electrical Engineering, 9(2), 23–31.
Arunchand, C.H., & Ramanathan, H.N. (2013). Organizational culture and employee morale: A public sector enterprise experience. Journal of Strategic Human Resource Management, 2(1), 1.
Balay‐Odao, E.M., Cruz, J.P., Alquwez, N., Al Otaibi, K., Al Thobaity, A., Alotaibi, R.S., . . . Danglipen, C.C. (2022). Structural empowerment and work ethics influence on the work engagement of millennial nurses. Journal of Nursing Management, 30(2), 501–510. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13532
Barney, C.E., & Elias, S.M. (2010). Flex‐time as a moderator of the job stress‐work motivation relationship: A three nation investigation. Personnel Review, 39(4), 487–502. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1108/00483481011045434
Bazzy, J.D. (2018). Work ethic dimensions as predictors of ego depletion. Current Psychology, 37, 198–206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-016-9503-6
Bertsch, A., Saeed, M., Ondracek, J., Sall, M., Knipp, Z., Gust, T., . . . Li, S. (2021). Work ethic across generations in the workplace. Effulgence, 19(2), 18–28. https://doi.org/10.33601/effulgence.rdias/v19/i2/2021/18-28
bin Salahudin, S.N., bin Alwi, M.N.R., binti Baharuddin, S.S., & binti Halimat, S.S. (2016). The relationship between work ethics and job performance. In R.X. Thambusamy, M.Y. Minas, & Z. Bekirogullari (Eds.), Business & Economics - BE-ci 2016, Vol 17. European Proceedings of Social and Behavioural Sciences (pp. 465–471). Future Academy. https://doi.org/10.15405/epsbs.2016.11.02.43
Boulding, K.E. (1952). Religious foundations of economic progress. Public Affairs: A Maritime Quarterly for Discussion of Public Affairs.
Buelens, M., & Van den Broeck, H. (2007). An analysis of differences in work motivation between public and private sector organizations. Public Administration Review, 67(1), 65–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2006.00697.x
Byrne, E. (2017). Work Ethic. In D.C. Poff, & A.C. Michalos (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Business and Professional Ethics. Springer Nature.
Cameron, K., Dutton, J., & Quinn, R.E. (Eds.). (2003). Positive organizational scholarship: Foundations of a new discipline. Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
Cameron, K.S., & Quinn, R.E. (2005). Diagnosing and changing organizational culture: Based on the competing values framework. John Wiley & Sons.
Campbell, J.P. (2012). Behavior, performance, and effectiveness in the twenty-first century. In The Oxford Handbook of Organizational Psychology, 1, 159–194.
Campbell, J.P., McCloy, R.A., Oppler, S.H., & Sager, C.E. (1993). A theory of performance. In N. Schmitt, & W. C. Borman (Eds.), Personnel Selection in Organizations (pp. 35–70). Jossey-Bass.
Cerasoli, C.P., Nicklin, J.M., & Ford, M.T. (2014). Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 980. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035661
Congleton, R.D. (1991). The economic role of a work ethic. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 15(3), 365–385. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-2681(91)90052-Y
Cortes, G.M., & Forsythe, E. (2023). Heterogeneous labor market impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. ILR Review, 76(1), 30–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/00197939221076856
Dawson, M., Abbott, J., & Shoemaker, S. (2011). The hospitality culture scale: A measure of organizational culture and personal attributes. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(2), 290–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2010.10.002
De Lucas, A., del Val Núñez, M.T., & Gavrila, S.G. (2021). Workplace change within the COVID-19 context: A grounded theory approach. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 34(1), 2297–2316. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2020.1862689
Deci, E.L., Olafsen, A.H., & Ryan, R.M. (2017). Self-determination theory in work organizations: The state of a science. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 19–43. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113108
Deschacht, N. (2021). The digital revolution and the labour economics of automation: A review. ROBONOMICS: The Journal of the Automated Economy, 1, 8–8. Retrieved from https://www.journal.robonomics.science/index.php/rj/article/view/8
Dobrov, G.M. (1979). The strategy for organized technology in the light of hard-, soft-, and org-ware interaction. Long Range Planning, 12(4), 79–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/0024-6301(79)90124-9
Dorschel, R. (2022). A new middle-class fraction with a distinct subjectivity: Tech workers and the transformation of the entrepreneurial self. The Sociological Review, 70(6), 1302–1320. https://doi.org/10.1177/00258172221103015
Dubina, K.S., Ice, L., Kim, J.-L., & Rieley, M.J. (2022). Projections overview and highlights, 2020–30. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics: Monthly Labor Review. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2021/article/projections-overview-and-highlights-2020-30.htm
English, J., & Marchione, A.R. (1983). Productivity: A new perspective [Article]. California Management Review, 25(2), 57–66. https://doi.org/10.2307/41165005
Flamholtz, E., & Randle, Y. (2011). Corporate culture: The ultimate strategic asset. Stanford University Press.
Fried, Y., & Ferris, G.R. (1987). The validity of the job characteristics model: A review and meta‐analysis. Personnel Psychology, 40(2), 287–322. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1987.tb00605.x
Furnham, A. (1990). The Protestant work ethic: The psychology of work-related beliefs and behaviors. Routledge.
Gallipoli, G., & Makridis, C.A. (2018). Structural transformation and the rise of information technology. Journal of Monetary Economics, 97, 91–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmoneco.2018.05.005
Gartner. (2024). Definition of digitalization - Gartner information technology glossary. Gartner. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/en/information-technology/glossary/digitalization
Gerhart, B., & Fang, M. (2015). Pay, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, performance, and creativity in the workplace: Revisiting long-held beliefs. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav., 2(1), 489–521. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032414-111418
Grabowski, D., Chudzicka-Czupała, A., & Stapor, K. (2021). Relationships between work ethic and motivation to work from the point of view of the Self-Determination Theory. PloS One, 16(7), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0253145
Gurbuz, S., & Aytekin, I. (2020). Are work attitudes of generations myth or real? Evidence from the United States and Turkey. Istanbul University Journal of the School of Business Administration, 49(2), 249–271. https://doi.org/10.26650/ibr.2020.49.0031
Harðardóttir, A.K., Guðjónsson, S., Minelgaite, I., & Kristinsson, K. (2019). Ethics as usual? Gender differences in work ethic and grades. Journal of Contemporary Management Issues, 24(2), 11–21. https://doi.org/10.30924/mjcmi.24.2.2
Harpaz, I. (1989). Non-financial employment commitment: A cross-national comparison. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 62(2), 147–150. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8325.1989.tb00485.x
Heaven, P.C.L. (1989). Structure and personality correlates of the Protestant work ethic among women. Personality and Individual Differences, 10, 101–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(89)90185-2
Herath, T., & Herath, H.S.B. (2020). Coping with the new normal imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic: Lessons for technology management and governance. Information Systems Management, 37(4), 277–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/10580530.2020.1818902
Hite, D.M., Daspit, J.J., & Xueni, D. (2015). Examining the influence of transculturation on work ethic in the United States. Cross Cultural Management, 22(1), 145–162. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCM-12-2013-0190
Jonck, P., van der Walt, F., & Sobayeni, N. (2017). Investigating the relationship between work values and work ethics: A South African perspective. South African Journal of Human Resource Management, 15(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v15i0.780
Jones, H.B. (1997). The Protestant ethic: Weber’s model and the empirical literature. Human Relations, 50(7), 757–779. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679705000701
Kalleberg, A.L., & Marsden, P.V. (2013). Changing work values in the United States, 1973–2006. Social Science Research, 42(2), 255–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.09.012
Lansisalmi, H., Peiro, J.M., & Kivimaki, M. (2000). Collective stress and coping in the context of organizational culture. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 9(4), 527–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320050203120
Laudon, K.C., & Traver, C.G. (2024). E-Commerce 2023: Business, Technology and Society. Boston: Pearson. ISBN-13: 9780138043391
Leenders, M.V.E., Buunk, A.P., & Henkens, K. (2017). The role of the relationship with parents with respect to work orientation and work ethic. Journal of General Psychology, 144(1), 16–34. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221309.2016.1258386
Lunenburg, F.C. (2011). Organizational culture-performance relationships: Views of excellence and theory Z. In National Forum of Educational Administration and Supervision Journal (Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 1–10).
Maier, G.W., & Brunstein, J.C. (2001). The role of personal work goals in newcomers’ job satisfaction and organizational commitment: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(5), 1034–1042. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.5.1034
Makridis, C.A., & Han, J.H. (2021). Future of work and employee empowerment and satisfaction: Evidence from a decade of technological change. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 173, 121162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2021.121162
Mann, M.J., Taber, T.D., & Haywood, K.J. (2013). Work ethic revisited: Identifying and operationalizing new dimensions of work ethic a century after Weber. Journal of Business Disciplines, 11(1), 65–101.
Marker, A. (2009). Organizational culture. In Handbook of Improving Performance in the Workplace (Vols. 1–3, pp. 725–744).
Maslach, C., & Leiter, M.P. (1997). The truth about burnout: How organizations cause personal stress and what to do about it. San Francisco, CA: John Wiley & Sons.
Maslow, A.H. (1998). Maslow on management. John Wiley & Sons.
McClelland, D. (1961). The achieving society. Van Nostrand. Princeton, NJ.
McConnell, J., & Metz, K. (2024). Finding fulfillment: An examination of the fulfillment of Maslow’s needs among traditional, hybrid, and remote-setting employees. American Journal of Management, 24(1). https://doi.org/10.33423/ajm.v24i1.6877
McHoskey, J.W. (1994). Factor structure of the Protestant Work Ethic Scale. Personality and Individual Differences, 17(1), 49–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90260-7
McPhail, R., Chan, X.W., May, R., & Wilkinson, A. (2024). Post-COVID remote working and its impact on people, productivity, and the planet: An exploratory scoping review. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 35(1), 154–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2023.2221385
Melnyk, B.M., Kelly, S.A., Stephens, J., Dhakal, K., McGovern, C., Tucker, S., . . . Bird, S.B. (2020). Interventions to improve mental health, well-being, physical health, and lifestyle behaviors in physicians and nurses: A systematic review. American Journal of Health Promotion, 34(8), 929–941. https://doi.org/10.1177/0890117120920451
Meriac, J. (2015). Examining relationships among work ethic, academic motivation, and performance. Educational Psychology, 35(5), 523–540. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2014.895291
Meriac, J., Woehr, D., & Banister, C. (2010). Generational differences in work ethic: An examination of measurement equivalence across three cohorts. Journal of Business & Psychology, 25(2), 315–324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-010-9164-7
Meriac, J., Woehr, D., Gorman, C.A., & Thomas, A. (2013). Development and validation of a short form for the multidimensional work ethic profile. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 82, 155–164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.01.007
Miller, M.J., Woehr, D.J., & Hudspeth, N.A. (2002). The meaning and measurement of work ethic: Construction and initial validation of a multidimensional inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 451–489. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2001.1838
Morse, N.C., & Weiss, R.S. (1955). The function and meaning of work and the job. American Sociological Review, 20(2), 191–198. https://doi.org/10.2307/2088325
Motowidlo, S.J., Manning, M.R., & Packard, J.S. (1986). Occupational stress: Its causes and consequences for job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 71(4), 618–629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.71.4.618
Mudrack, P.E. (1997). Protestant work-ethic dimensions and work orientations. Personality and Individual Differences, 23(2), 217–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(97)00041-X
Mussner, T., Strobl, A., Veider, V., & Matzler, K. (2017). The effect of work ethic on employees’ individual innovation behavior. Creativity & Innovation Management, 26(4), 391–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/caim.12243
Naranjo-Valencia, J.C., Jiménez-Jiménez, D., & Sanz-Valle, R. (2011). Innovation or imitation? The role of organizational culture. Management Decision, 49(1), 55–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/00251741111094437
Ness, R.K.V., Melinsky, K., Buff, C.L., & Seifert, C.F. (2010). Work ethic: Do new employees mean new work values? Journal of Managerial Issues, 22(1), 10–34.
Nguyen, P.T., Yandi, A., & Mahaputra, M.R. (2020). Factors that influence employee performance: Motivation, leadership, environment, culture organization, work achievement, competence and compensation (A study of human resource management literature studies). Dinasti International Journal of Digital Business Management, 1(4), 645–662.
Ntasis, L., Koronios, K., & Pappas, T. (2021). The impact of COVID‐19 on the technology sector: The case of TATA Consultancy Services. Strategic Change, 30(2), 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsc.2397
O’Reilly III, C.A., Chatman, J., & Caldwell, D.F. (1991). People and organizational culture: A profile comparison approach to assessing person-organization fit. Academy of Management Journal, 34(3), 487–516. https://doi.org/10.5465/256404
Olynick, J., & Li, H.Z. (2020). Organizational culture and its relationship with employee stress, enjoyment of work and productivity. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 12(2), 14. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v12n2p14
Otto, K., Dette-Hagenmeyer, D.E., & Dalbert, C. (2010). Occupational mobility in members of the labor force: Explaining the willingness to change occupations. Journal of Career Development, 36(3), 262–288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0894845309345842
Richards, D.R., & Steiger, T.L. (2021). Value orientations and support for guaranteed income. Social Science Quarterly, 102(6), 2733–2751. https://doi.org/10.1111/ssqu.13086
Rosso, B.D., Dekas, K.H., & Wrzesniewski, A. (2010). On the meaning of work: A theoretical integration and review. Research in Organizational Behavior, 30, 91–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2010.09.001
Saks, A., Mudrack, P., & Ashforth, B. (2009). The relationship between the work ethic, job attitudes, intentions to quit, and turnover for temporary service employees. Canadian Journal of Administrative Sciences, 13, 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1936-4490.1996.tb00733.x
Schaufeli, W.B., & Bakker, A.B. (2004). Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: A multi-sample study. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 25(3), 293–315. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.248
Schein, E.H. (2010). Organizational culture and leadership (Vol. 2). John Wiley & Sons.
Schilpzand, A., & de Jong, E. (2021). Work ethic and economic development: An investigation into Weber’s thesis. European Journal of Political Economy, 66, 101958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2020.101958
Segars, A.H., & Hendrickson, A.R. (2000). Value, knowledge, and the human equation. Journal of Labor Research, 21(3), 431–445. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12122-000-1019-y
Simonson, A., Bender, A., Fetherolf, O., Hancock, S., Krodel, K., Reistad, K., . . . Bertsch, A. (2017). Exploring the relationship between work ethic and organizational commitment. International Research Journal of Human Resources and Social Sciences, 4.
Smit, I., & Schabracq, M. (1997). Stress, performance, and organizational cultures. International Journal of Stress Management, 4, 275–289. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:IJSM.0000008707.79945.45
Sokro, E. (2012). Analysis of the relationship that exists between organisational culture, motivation and performance. Problems of Management in the 21st Century, 3(1), 106–119.
Sparks, K., Faragher, B., & Cooper, C.L. (2001). Well-being and occupational health in the 21st century workplace. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 74, 489–509. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317901167497
Tang, T.L.P. (1993). A factor analytic study of the Protestant work ethic. The Journal of Social Psychology, 133(1), 109–111. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.1993.9712124
Thokozani, S.B.M., & Maseko, B. (2017). Strong vs. weak organizational culture: Assessing the impact on employee motivation. Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 7(1), 2–5. https://doi.org/10.4172/2223-5833.1000287
Thompson, N., Stradling, S., Murphy, M., & O’Neill, P. (1996). Stress and organizational culture. The British Journal of Social Work, 26(5), 647–665. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bjsw.a011139
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2024). Computer and information technology occupations: Occupational outlook handbook. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.bls.gov/ooh/computer-and-information-technology/home.htm
Van Wingerden, J., & Van der Stoep, J. (2018). The motivational potential of meaningful work: Relationships with strengths use, work engagement, and performance. PloS One, 13(6), e0197599. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197599
Weber, M. (1958). The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. Scribners.
Weniger, M., & Bigley, J. (2019). Dependencies between work ethic and economic growth: A global perspective. The International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Invention, 6. https://doi.org/10.18535/ijsshi/v6i6.03
Woehr, D.J., Arciniega, L.M., & Lim, D.H. (2007). Examining work ethic across populations: A comparison of the multidimensional work ethic profile across three diverse cultures. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 67(1), 154–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164406292036
Xiang, S., & Rasool, S. (2021). The effect of COVID-19 pandemic on service sector sustainability and growth. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 633597. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.633597
Yandle, B. (1992). Does anyone still care? Supervision, pp. 14–16.
