The Effect of Cold and Hot Executive Functions, Personality, General Intelligence and Emotional Intelligence in Transformational Leadership
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.33423/jlae.v21i2.7064Keywords:
leadership, accountability, ethics, cognitive neuroscience, transformational leadershipAbstract
This study investigates the role of hot and cold executive functions (EF) in transformational leadership, considering the mediating role of personality, general cognitive ability, and trait emotional intelligence (EI). EF plays an essential role in responding and adapting to new situations. The sample (N=316) consisted of students and leaders. Neuropsychological tests assessing specific domains of EF and questionnaires assessing personality, general cognitive ability, and trait EI were administered. The results showed that cold EF affects leadership, emphasizing the mediating role of personality. Furthermore, leaders performed better in communication skills, attention span, and working memory than students.
References
Aleman, A., & Van’t Wout, M. (2008). Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation over the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex disrupts digit span task performance. Neuropsychobiology, 57, 44–48. DOI: 10.1159/000129666
Avolio, B.J., & Bass, B.M. (2004). Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire. Sampler Set.
Baltar, F., & Brunet, I. (2012). Social research 2.0: Virtual snowball sampling method using Facebook. Internet Research, 22(1), 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1108/10662241211199960
Balthazard, P.A., Waldman, D.A., Thatcher, R.D., & Hannah, S.T. (2012). Differentiating transformational and non-transformational leaders on the basis of neurological imaging. The Leadership Quarterly, 23(2), 244–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2011.08.002.
Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Tranel, D., & Damasio, A.R. (1997). Deciding advantageously before knowing the advantageous strategy. Science, 275, 1293–1295.
Bono, J.E., & Judge, T.A. (2004). Personality and transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 901–910.
Bosco, F.A., & Allen, D.G. (2011). Executive attention as a predictor of employee performance: Reconsidering the relationship between cognitive ability and adverse impact potential. Academy of Management Annual Meeting Proceedings, 8, 1–6.
Boyatzis, R.E. (2006). Using tipping points of emotional and cognitive competencies to predict the financial performance of leaders. Psicothema, 18, 124–131.
Canli, T. (2004). Functional brain mapping of extraversion and neuroticism: Learning from individual differences in emotion processing. Journal of Personality, 72, 1105–1132.
Chan, T., Wang, I., & Ybarra, O. (2021). Leading and managing the workplace: The role of executive functions. Academy of Management Perspectives, 35(1). https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2017.0215
Connelly, S., & Ruark, G. (2010). Leadership style and activating potential moderators of the relationships among leader emotional displays and outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(5), 745–764. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.07.005
Craig, A., Tran, Y., Hermens, G., Williams, L., Kemp, A., Morris, C., & Gordon, E. (2009). Psychological and neural correlates of emotional intelligence in a large sample of adult males and females. Personality and Individual Differences, 46, 111–115.
DeRue, D.S., Ashford, S.J., & Myers, C.G. (2011). Learning agility: In search of conceptual clarity and theoretical grounding. Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 5, 258–279.
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annu. Rev. Psychol., 64, 135–168.
Federmeier, K.D., Kutas, M., & Schul, R. (2010). Age-related and individual differences in the use of prediction during language comprehension. Brain Lang., 115, 149–161. doi:10.1016/j.bandl.2010.07.006
Federmeier, K.D., McLennan, D.B., De Ochoa, E., & Kutas, M. (2002). The impact of semantic memory organization and sentence context information on spoken language processing by younger and older adults: An ERP study. Psychophysiology, 39, 133–146. doi: 10.1111/1469-8986.3920133
Fitzpatrick, S., Gilbert, S.J., & Serpell, L.E. (2013). Systematic review: Are overweight and obese individuals impaired on behavioural tasks of executive functioning? Neuropsychol. Rev., 23, 138–156. doi: 10.1007/s11065-013-9224-7
Gailliot, M.T. (2010). The effortful and energy-demanding nature of prosocial behavior. In M. Mikulincer, & P.R. Shaver (Eds.), Prosocial motives, emotions, and behavior: The better angels of our nature (pp. 169–180). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. doi:10.1037/12061-009
Gladwell, M. (2008). Annals of Education: Most Likely to Succeed. Reporting & Essays: The New Yorker.
Gómez-Leal, R., Holzer, A.A., Bradley, C., Fernández-Berrocal, P., & Patti, J. (2021). The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership in school leaders: A systematic review. Cambridge Journal of Education. DOI: 10.1080/0305764X.2021.1927987
Grant, A.M. (2012). Leading with meaning: Beneficiary contact, prosocial impact, and the performance effects of transformational leadership. Academy of Management Journal, 55(2), 458–476.
Grant, A.M., & Berry, J.W. (2011). The necessity of others is the mother of invention: Intrinsic and prosocial motivations, perspective taking, and creativity. Academy of Management Journal, 54(1), 73–96.
Hannah, S., Balthazard, P.A., Waldman, D.A., & Jennings, P.L. (2013). The psychological and neurological bases of leader self-complexity and effects on adaptive decision-making. Journal of Applied Psychology, 98(3), 393–411.
Hunter, J.E., & Schmidt, F.L. (1996). Intelligence and job performance: Economic and social implications. Psychology, Public Policy and Law, 2, 447–472.
Judge, T.A., Bono, J.E., Ilies, R., & Gerhardt, M. (2002). Personality and leadership: A qualitative and quantitative review. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 765–780.
Kane, M.J., & Engle, R.W. (2003). Working-memory capacity and the control of attention: The contributions of goal neglect, response competition, and task set to Stroop interference. J. Exp. Psychol. Gen., 132, 47–70. doi: 10.1037/0096-3445.132.1.47
Kosmidis, M.H., Vlahou, C.H., Panagiotaki, P., & Kiosseoglou, G. (2004). The verbal fluency task in the Greek population: Normative data, and clustering and switching strategies. J Int Neuropsychol Soc., 10(2), 164–72. doi: 10.1017/S1355617704102014. PMID: 15012836.
Lam, C.S., & O’Higgins, E.R. (2012). Enhancing employee outcomes: The interrelated influences of managers’ emotional intelligence and leadership style. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 33(2), 149–174. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437731211203465
Lubinski, D., Webb, R.M., Morelock, M.J., & Benbow, C.P. (2001). Top 1 in 10,000: A 10-year follow-up of the profoundly gifted. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.718
Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D.R. (2008). MSCEIT user’s manual. Toronto: Multi-health systems.
McCrae, R.R., & Costa, Jr., P.T. (1999). A five-factor theory of personality. Handbook of Personality: Theory and Research, 2, 139–153.
Mestre, J.M., Guil, R., Lopes, P.N., Salovey, P., & Gil-Olarte, P. (2006). Emotional intelligence and social and academic adaptation to school. Psicothema, 18, 112–117.
Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Emerson, M.J., Witzki, A.H., Howerter, A., & Wager, T.D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
Mueller, S.T. (2011). The PEBL Bechara Gambling Task (PBGT). Retrieved from http://pebl.sf.net/battery.html
Murdock, K.W., Oddi, K.B., & Bridgett, D.J. (2013). Cognitive correlates of personality: Links between executive functioning and the big five personality traits. Journal of Individual Differences, 34(2), 97–104. doi: 10.1027/1614-0001/a000104
Petrides, K.V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of Personality, 15, 425–448.
Phipps, S.T., Prieto, L.C., & Deis, M.H. (2015). The role of personality in organizational citizenship behavior: Introducing counterproductive work behavior and integrating impression management as a moderating factor. Journal of Organizational Culture, Communications, and Conflict, 19(1), 176.
Ramchandran, K., Colbert, A.E., Brown, K.G., Denburg, N.L., & Tranel, D. (2016). Exploring the neuropsychological antecedents of transformational leadership: The role of executive function. Adaptive Human Behavior and Physiology, 2, 325–343.
Revelle, W., Dworak, E.M., & Condon, D. (2020). Cognitive ability in everyday life: The utility of open-source measures. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 29(4), 358–363. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420922178
Rinfet, N., Laplante, J., Lagacé, M.C., Deschamps, C., & Privé, C. (2018). Impacts of leadership styles in health and social services: A case from Quebec exploring relationships between emotional intelligence and transformational leadership. International Journal of Healthcare Management, 13(Suppl 1), 329–339. https:// doi.org/10.1080/20479700.2018.1548153
Rubin, R.S., Munz, D.C., & Bommer, W.H. (2005). Leading from within: The effects of emotion recognition and personality on transformational leadership behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 48, 845–858.
Schmidt, F.L. (2002). The Role of General Cognitive Ability and Job Performance: Why There Cannot Be a Debate (1st Ed.). Psychology Press.
Schmidt, F.L., & Hunter, J. (2004). General mental ability in the world of work: Occupational attainment and job performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 162–173. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.162
Stroop, J.R. (1935). Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18(6), 643–662. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054651
Tei, S., Fujino, J., Kawada, R., Jankowski, K.F., Kauppi, J.P., Van Den Bos, W., . . . Takahashi, H. (2017). Collaborative roles of temporoparietal junction and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex in different types of behavioural flexibility. Scientific Reports, 7, 6415.
Vakola, M., Tsaousis, I., & Georgiades, S. (2006). The psychometric properties of the BFFM questionnaire with a Greek sample [Unpublished manuscript, Athens University of Economics and Business].
Waldman, D.A., Javidan, M., & Varella, P. (2018). Charismatic leadership at the strategic level: A new application of upper echelons theory. Leadership Quarterly, 15, 355–80.
Wang, N.G., Oh, I.S., Courtright, S.H., & Colbert, A.E. (2011). Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of research. Group & Organization Management, 36(2), 223–270.
Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale--Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) [Database record]. APA PsychTests.
Ypofanti, M., Zisi, V., Zourbanos, N., Mouchtouri, B., Tzanne, P., Theodorakis, Y., Lyrakos, G. (2015, October 19). Psychometric Properties of the International Personality Item Pool Big-Five Personality Questionnaire for the Greek population. Health Psychol Res., 3(2), 2206. doi:10.4081/hpr.2015.2206. PMID: 26973962; PMCID: PMC4768534.
Zalonis, I., Christidi, F., Bonakis, A., Kararizou, E., Triantafyllou, N.I., Paraskevas, G., . . . Vasilopoulos, D. (2009). The stroop effect in Greek healthy population: Normative data for the Stroop Neuropsychological Screening Test. Arch Clin Neuropsychol., 24(1), 81–8. doi:10.1093/arclin/acp011
Zelazo, P.D., & Müller, U. (2002). Executive function in typical and atypical development. In U. Goswami (Ed.), Handbook of childhood cognitive development (pp. 445–469). Oxford: Blackwell.
Zelazo, P.D., Qu, L., & Müller, U. (2005). Hot and cool aspects of executive function: Relations in early development. In W. Schneider, R. Schumann- Hengsteler, & B. Sodian (Eds.), Young children’s cognitive development: Interrelationships among executive functioning, working memory, verbal ability, and theory of mind (pp. 71–93). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.